Estimation of the Economic Value for the Consumptive Water Use Ecosystem Service Benefits of the Chyulu Hills Watershed, Kenya
The Chyulu Hills watershed ecosystem is a critical dryland water tower which supports large populations of people, livestock and wildlife in terms of water supply. The objectives of the study were to: - a) delineate the watershed ecosystem boundary based on the drainage network and locate the key water sources, b) undertake a comprehensive water use analysis to establish the consumptive beneficiaries and their consumption levels, and c) estimate the monetary value of the consumptive water use ecosystem service benefits. The watershed ecosystem boundary delineation was based on 30m Landsat imagery using ASTER Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and ArcGIS 10.3. Surface water sources were determined using secondary data and field assessment of springs and rivers while the groundwater sources were inventoried using available borehole records and household surveys of hand dug shallow wells. The water use analysis and monetization was based on both secondary and primary data derived from existing water use records and field interviews, respectively. The estimation of the monetary value was undertaken through the market price method (MPM) using the cost value. The results showed that the Chyulu Hills watershed ecosystem was more hydrologically productive in the north-eastern zone (Kiboko-Makindu-Kibwezi). The watershed ecosystem service beneficiaries were mainly the local domestic water users, small scale irrigators, large scale irrigators, livestock keepers, tourism operators, and conservationists. The average water consumer price was $0.03 for a 20 litre jerri can of water while the total monetary value for the consumptive water resources was estimated at Ksh46, 676,192 which translated to $466,862 per annum. The watershed ecosystem service value was highest in the eastern zone (Kibwezi) at approximately Ksh5,906($59)/km2 followed by the northern zone (Masimba-Kiboko-Makindu) at Ksh3,490($35)/km2 and Ksh2,579($26)/km2 in the southern zone (Kambu-Mtito Andei-Mzima Springs). The value was lowest in the western zone (Kajiado) at Ksh5.86 ($0.05)/km2. The total economic value (TEV) was much lower than the estimates for other similar dry land water towers in Kenya.
Chyulu Hills, Watershed Ecosystem Services, Water Resources, Monetary Value
[1]
African Development Bank (AfDB) (2015). Payment for Environmental Services; a promising tool for natural resources management in Africa. Environment and Climate Change Department (ONEC), African Development Bank, Abidjan.
[2]
Bhatta, L. D., van Oort, B. E. H., Rucevska, I. & H. Baral (2014). Payment for ecosystem services: possible instrument for managing ecosystem services in Nepal. International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management 10, 289-299.
[3]
Costanza, R. (1997). Valuation of ecological systems with sustainability, fairness, and efficiency as goals. pp: 524-525 in: G. K. Meffe and C. R. Carroll (eds.), Principles of Conservation Biology, Second Edition. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA.
[4]
Costanza R. C., Daly, J., Goodland, H., & R. Noorgard (1997). An introduction to ecological economics. St. Lucie Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
[5]
Daily, G. C., T. Söderqvist, S. Aniyar, K. Arrow, P. Dasgupta, P. R. Ehrlich, C. Folke, A. Jansson, B. Jansson, N. Kautsky, S. Levin, J. Lubchenco, K. Mäler, D. Simpson, D. Starrett, D. Tilman, & B. Walker (2000). The value of nature and the nature of value. Science 289:395−396.
[6]
de Groot, R. S., M. A. Wilson, & M. J. Boumans (2002). A typology for the classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecological Economics, 41:393−408.
[7]
Dunkiel, B. & S. Sugarman (1998). Complaint for declaratory, mandatory and injustice relief. United States District Court for the District of Vermont. Burlington, Vermont.
[8]
Dudley, N. & S. Stolton (2003). Running Pure: The Importance of Forest Protected Areas to Drinking Water. Washington D.C.: WWF/World Bank.
[9]
Emerton, L., Ndugire, N. & C. Bokea (1998). The Costs of Environmental Degradation to the Kenyan Economy: A Review of the Literature, Policy Research Group, Nairobi.
[10]
Ellison, D., N Futter, M. & K. Bishop (2012). On the forest cover–water yield debate: from demand-to supply-side thinking. Global Change Biology 18, 806-820.
[11]
Farber, S. C., Costanza, R. & M. A. Wilson (2002). Economic and ecological concepts for valuing ecosystem services. Ecol. Econ. 41, 375–392.
[12]
Fiquepron, J., Garcia, S. & A. Stenger (2013). Land use impact on water quality: valuing forest services in terms of the water supply sector. Journal of environmental management 126, 113-121.
[13]
Grossman, M. (2008). The Kilimanjaro aquifer: a case study for the research project “Transboundary groundwater management in Africa” In: Conceptualizing Cooperation on Africa's Transboundary Groundwater Resources. German Development Institute (DIE), Bonn, Germany.
[14]
Gustson, H. & M. Mnyamwezi (1985). The Chyulu Hills water resources study, Kenya. A technical progress report, April 1984 to October 1985. Ministry of Water Development and British Aid Programme.
[15]
Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science, 162: 1243-1248.
[16]
Howarth, R. B., & S. Farber (2002). Accounting for the value of ecosystem services. Ecol. Econ. 41, 421–429.
[17]
International Bank for Reconstruction & Development/THE World Bank (2004). How much is an ecosystem worth? – Assessing the economic value of conservation.
[18]
Kamau, P. N (2013). Anthropogenic fires, forest resources, and local livelihoods at Chyulu Hills, Kenya. MA thesis, Miami University.
[19]
Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) (2007). Tsavo Conservation Area Management Plan 2008-2018. Unpublished report. Kenyan Wildlife Services, Kenya.
[20]
Kiringe, J. W., Mwaura, F., Wandera, P., Kimeu, M. & F. Gachuga (2015). Water management tools in the Chyulu Hills Watershed. Report pprepared for the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) by Habitat Planners, Nairobi, Kenya.
[21]
Kipkoech A., Mogaka H., Cheboiywo J., & D. Kimaro (2011). The total economic value of Maasai Mau, Trans Mara and Eastern Mau forest blocks, of the Mau Forest, Kenya. Lake Victoria Basin Commission, Kisumu, Kenya.
[22]
Kinuthia, H. M. (2005). The total economic valuation of natural resources: Perceived community livelihood values of Mukogodo Forest, Laikipia, Kenya. M. A. thesis, University of Nairobi.
[23]
Kremen, C. (2005). Managing ecosystem services: what do we need to know about their ecology? Ecology Letters 8: 468-479.
[24]
Krieger, D. J. (2001). Economic value of forest ecosystem services: a review. A report prepared for the Wildlife Society, Washington DC.
[25]
Lovett, J. C & S. Noel (2008): Valuing ecosystem goods and services. Afr. J. Ecol., 46, 117–118.
[26]
Limburg, K. E., O’Neil, R. V. Costanza, R. & S. Farber (2002). Complex systems and valuation. Ecological Economics 41, 409–420.
[27]
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being: synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC.
[28]
Muriuki, G., Leonie, S., Clive, M., Chris, J., Bronwyn, Price, & B. Greg (2011). Land cover change under unplanned human settlements: a study of the Chyulu Hills squatters, Kenya. Landscape and Urban Planning, 99:154–165.
[29]
Nairobi City County (2014). The Project on Integrated Urban Development Master Plan for the City of Nairobi in the Republic of Kenya Final Report - Part I: Current Conditions. Technical Support From Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
[30]
Navrud, S. & E. D. Mungatana (1994). Environmental Valuation in Developing Countries: The Recreational Value of Wildlife Viewing. Ecological Economics, 11:135-151.
[31]
Ndungu, J. (2006). Economic valuation of ecosystem services in Shompole wetland, South Ewaso Ngiro River, Kenya. M. A. thesis, University of Nairobi.
[32]
Mwaura, F. and L. N. Muhata, L. N. (2009). The use of contingent valuation to assess the community willingness-to-pay for the conservation of Ondiri Swamp, Kikuyu, Kenya. Regional Development Studies 12-65-79.
[33]
Nyamweru, C, (1980). Rifts and volcanoes. A study of the East African rift system. Nelson Africa, Nairobi.
[34]
Ojany, F. F. (1966). The physique of Kenya: a contribution in landscape analysis. Annals Assoc. American Geographers, 56: 183-196.
[35]
Paterson W, Rushforth R., Ruddell B. L., Konar M., Ahams, I. C., Gironás j., Mijic A & A. Mejia (2015). Water footprint of cities: A review and suggestions for future research. Sustainability 7(7):8461–8490.
[36]
Pierce, S. M., Cowling, R. M., Sandwith, T. &, K. Mackinnon (Eds.) (2002). Mainstreaming Biodiversity in Development: Case Studies from South Africa. The World Bank, Washington, DC.
[37]
Pringle, C. & L. Quayle (2014). The role of the Chyulu Hills in the delivery of ecosystem services in south-eastern Kenya. INR Report No 495/14. Report Prepared for the African Wildlife Foundation: Nairobi, Kenya.
[38]
Rai, R. K., Shyamsundar, P., Nepal, M., & L. D. Bhatta (2015). Differences in demand for watershed services: Understanding preferences through a choice experiment in the Koshi Basin of Nepal. Ecological Economics 119, 274-283.
[39]
Ritter, J. R. R. & T. Kaspar (1997). A tomography of the Chyulu Hills, Kenya. In: Fuchs, K., Altherr, R., Muller, B., Prodehl, C. (Eds.), Structure and Dynamic Processes in the Lithosphere of the Afro Arabian Rift System. Tectonophysics, 278:149–169.
[40]
Saggerson, E. P. (1963). Geology of the Simba-Kibwezi Area: Ministry of Commerce and Industry Geological Survey of Kenya.
[41]
Simons J. W. E. (1998). Volcanic Caves of Kenya. A guide for the 8th Int. Symp, on Vulcanospeleology. Nairobi, Kenya.
[42]
Strahler, A & A. Strahler (1998). Introducing physical geography [Second Edition], John Wiley & Sons, New York.
[43]
Temperley, B. N. (1955). A study of the movement of ground water in lava covered country. Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources, Kenya.
[44]
Vincent, J. R., Ahmad, I., Adnan, N., Burwell III, W. B., Pattanayak, S. K., Tan-Soo, J.-S & K. Thomas (2015). Valuing water purification by forests: an analysis of Malaysian panel data. Environmental and Resource Economics, 1-22.
[45]
Wilson, M. A. & R. Howarth (2002). Discourse-based valuation of ecosystem services: establishing fair outcomes through group deliberation. Ecological Economics 41, 431–443.
[46]
Woodhouse, M. (1991): Natural indicators of shallow ground water in Kibwezi Division, Kenya. J. EANHS & Nat. Mus. 81 (197):1-13.
[47]
Wright, E. P. (1982). Ground water resources of the Chyulu Hills. Progress report, September 1982. Institute of the Geological Sciences for the Study. Wallingford.
